Negative Schizotypy Reflect A Continuously Deficit Psychology Essay

Negative Schizotypy Reflect A Continuously Deficit psychological science EssayThe DSM-IV APA, diagnosiss schizophrenia base on reoccurring symptoms, including hallucinations delusions, disorganised speech, disorganised or catatonic behaviour and detrigenial. One reason for cognitive impairments observed in schizophrenia is the processing of context. Cohen (1999) states context processing is employ in full general to mean the function of mental effort or cognitive control. It is referred to actively holding in conditionation to be use to mediate task allow behaviour. Buchanan et al (1994) states negative symptoms of schizophrenia argon connected with deficits involving decision maker functioning memory. Further separate from Dibben, et al (2009) explains executive dysfunction shows difficulty in maintaining contextual information, in that respectfore may be an endophe nonype of the schizophrenia spectrum of disorders.Research has pitch there are certain negative schizotyp y traits, associated with schizophrenia. Lenzenweger (2010) defines schizoptypy as an underlying character construct rather than a set of explicit behaviours, which may usher a concealed risk of future(a) schizophrenia. Schizotypy traits which parallel symptoms of schizophrenia start out from low to pathological, suggesting schizophrenia as a spectrum disorder. Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD) presents as similar symptoms to schizophrenia but are explained as a frame up line state in DSM-III (APA, 1980) SPD non severe enough to match the criteria to be diagnosed as schizophrenic. Therefore signifying schizophrenia corresponds to the severe end of the spectrum. special support from OFlynn et al (2007) shows individuals with proud schizotypy slews are cognitively conjugated to schizophrenia as part of a schizophrenia spectrum. Further more(prenominal) Diforio (2000) ensnare SPD patients exhibit cognitive impairment in numerous areas, such as executive functioning, du al task information processing and working memory. These are similar to those seen in schizophrenia, although less severe. Studies by Barch (2004) likewise found individuals put forwarding schizotypal characteristics express deficits in attention and working memory. Studying individuals with schizotypy traits or SPD can serve up towards projecting systems and psychological processes contributing to schizophrenia, without confounding factors such as medicine effects intervening, which is problematic when researching schizophrenia.The O-LIFE was developed to focus on traits rather than symptoms. It measures intravenous feeding sub- crustal plates associated with schizotypal traits, all experience been recognized to assume high internal consistency. These are unusual experiences = 0.89, cognitive disorganisation = 0.87, introvertive anhedonia = 0.82 and impulse nonconformity = 0.77. (Mason et al 1995) Evidence from Burch et al (1998) found O-LIFEs try on-retest reliability to be very high. just this investigating just measures introvertive anhedonia commonly referred to as a negative schizotypy trait.Meehl (1962) states Anhedonia is the reduced ability to experience tender and physical sources of pleasure, as comfortably as avoidance of intimacy, it is an important characteristic of negative symptoms describing it as unity of the most invariable and dramatic behavioural signs of the disease. Additionally high friendly anhedonia as suggested by Blanchard et al (2000) may indicate schizotypy, relating it to a taxon amongst an undergraduate population. A study by Kwapil (1998) suggests higher scores of social anhedonia defend been correlated to a greater probability of being diagnosed with future schizophrenia.This investigates uses the O-LIFE questionnaire to measure scores on the introvertive anhedonia subscale and to observe if higher scorers have difficulty with contextual processing. Haddon et al (2011) claim biconditional favoritism in the form of a contextual processing task may be used to measure the way in which task-setting cues control performance. Participants are required to gain births by trial-and-error amongst random pairs of stimuli and feedback responses. Cohen Servan-Schreiber (1992) propose task-setting cues are substantial in resolving conflict which opposing stimulus-response pathways create. A study by Mason et al (1995) examined performance of participants with high and low schizotypy scores, using biconditional inconsistency and a control difference which did not use task-setting cues. Findings showed those who scored highly on the introvertive anhedonia subscale performed weakly on the biconditional. Therefore Liddle (1987) suggests deficits in biconditional variation are directly related to the introvertive anhedonia schizotypy subscale. Furthermore Burch et al (1998) states high schizotypy scores are related to impairments on cognitive tasks, similar to those with schizophrenia.Looking at previous research this investigation aims to replicate (using a related discrimination procedure) and generalise findings of Haddon et al (2011), also to contribute to developing projects on schizotypy which looks to understand effects of core cognitive deficits on severe mental illness. The investigation hypothesises the high schizotypy group will find completion of biconditional discrimination more difficult than lower groups.MethodDesignAn experimental design was used in this study. The independent variables were the schizotypy groups 1, 2, 3 and 4. The dependent variable was the biconditional discrimination score.Participants92 undergraduates (75 womanlys and 17 males) participated in return for course credit and were undiagnosed as schizophrenic or taking psychotropic medication.MaterialsMaterials included the O-life (The Oxford and Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences) questionnaire and a contextual processing task. (O-LIFE Mason 1995) This was chosen as it is a true and valid measure that was specifically designed for use with sub-clinical populations.A background computer running windows and visual basic was used for displaying the stimuli and recording the participants responses. The contextual processing task programme was designed specifically for the investigation.ProcedureParticipants were well-tried individually in a quiet environment. The 160-item O-LIFE questionnaire used for measuring schizotypal characteristics inside the normal population was shown on a projector screen and participants had to circle yes or no to the corresponding question on an answer sheet. Participants were allocated to schizotypy groups of 20 based on their introvertive anhedonia score relative to the distribution of this trait in participants of similar age and gender. They carried out a contextual processes task which tested biconditional discrimination.Participants assumed the role of a stockbroker and advised clients on stock profitability. In total o f 80 training trials presented the participant with pairs of hypothetical stocks including chemicals and paper or metal and wood. Participants then discriminated on a 9 point scale which pairs of stocks would result in profit (positive outcome) and which would result in losses (negative outcome). Participants were instructed to pull up stakes a confidence rating of 1 if certain there would be a loss a rating of 5 if uncertain and a rating of 9 if certain of a profit, feedback was provided on the outcome. All iv types of trial (AX, BX, AY, BY) (see fig 2) were presented randomly once within each cycle, 20 trials of each compound in total.Biconditional trainingAX+AY-BY+BX- material body 2 Table of contingences.Completing the task involves attending to both cues consecutively to predict important events. When processing one cue (X) participants have to deem the context in which it is displayed (A or B).Data AnalysisAs there were multiple levels of the independent variable a one way mingled with ANOVA was used to test for a difference. This analysis decreases chance of a type 1 error. The dependent variable biconditional discrimination was measured by taking the average difference between profit (AX BY) and loss (AY BX) trials in the final 40 trials of acquire. Analysis was carried out this way because as Haddon et al (2011) show the effects between the groups emerge as learning progresses. A single score ranging from -8 and +8 was therefore produced reflecting each participants contextual learning ability. The higher the participants score the more context learning ability they have. As ANOVA only states whether there is an boilersuit meaningful effect Bonferroni sway hoc tests were carried out to find which means were significantly contrasting from each other.ResultsLevenes test of homogeneity of variance is used to report whether variance is significantly different between groups. We cannot use the ANOVA model if there is a significant difference, a lthough for this study Levenes test of homogeneity of variance was non-significant, (p0.05) therefore ANOVA data can be interpreted.One way between ANOVA shows an overall significant difference between introvertive anhedonia score and contextual processing. (F (3, 88) = 6.019, pPairwise comparisons using post hoc test bonferroni showed scores for group 1 were significantly higher than those in group 4 (p0.05). As figure 1 shows a linear association was found. (See figure 1).Figure 1. Mean discrimination score by group (s.e shown as error bars)DiscussionThe aim of this investigation was to further examine and replicate the findings of Haddon (2011). Findings have provided evidence consistent with this aim and hypothesis that high schizotypy groups have difficulty completing biconditional discrimination compared to lower groups. Specifically participants with higher introvertive anhedonia scores (group 4) displayed more impaired biconditional performance compared with those with low scores (group 1).The connection found between high Introvertive Anhedonia scores and impaired biconditional performance is consistent with Liddles (1987) research linking cognitive dysfunction to negative symptoms of schizophrenia and schizotypy characteristics. However it is essential to note anhedonia is not an exclusive feature of schizophrenia, having also been found in bipolar disorder.These results not only give further support to Haddon et als (2011) findings but also maintains the theory from Cohen and Servan-Schreiber (1992) that high schizotypy individuals, should be impaired on biconditional discrimination tasks since contextual information is essential for resolving conflict between opposing stimulus-response.Futhermore the statistical test ANOVA only shows there is a difference between groups scores, not stating exact cause and effect. Variation within groups could be payable to individual differences or other factors that were not controlled (tiredness or mood) could affect concentration. Participants could have found the task uninteresting therefore not engaging full also participants different approaches to answering biconditional discrimination task can have an impact upon results.The O-LIFE questionnaire has good test-retest reliability and is useful in studying a nonclinical population. Although O-LIFE is not a diagnostic test for risk of mental illness, interrogatory only personality traits. However there are limitations in the investigation, the exemplar had a clear gender submit with a larger female to male ratio. Another drawback being a young age bias as it used undergraduate students, although sampling from younger age groups produces groups with corresponding distributions of introvertive anhedonia scores.Further research is needed to determine the significance of these results and their implications for the relationship between negative schizotypy traits and context processing. Researchers looking for objective indicators for ca uses of decline into schizophrenia could use further research using these results.Additionally larger concord of negative symptoms could motivate research into producing therapies effective for negative symptoms.ReferencesAssociation, A. P. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (thrided.). Washington Author.Association, A. P. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (fourth ed.). Washington Author.Barch, D. M., Mitropoulou, V., Harvey, P. D., New, A. S., Silverman, J. M., Siever, L. J. (2004). Context-processing deficits in schizotypal personality disorder. Journal of deviate Psychology, 113, 556-568.Blanchard, J. J., Gangestad, S. W., Brown, S. A., Horan, W. P. (2000). Hedonic cleverness and schizotypy revisited A taxometric analysis of social anhedonia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(1), 87-95.Buchanan, R. W., Strauss, M. E., Kirkpatrick, B., Holstein, C., Breier, A., Carpenter, W.T. (1994). Neuropsychological Impairments in Deficit Vs Nondeficit Forms of Schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51(10), 804-811.Burch, G. S. J., Steel, C., Hemsley, D. R. (1998). Oxford-Liverpool Inventory ofFeelings and Experiences Reliability in an experimental population. BritishJournal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 107-108.Cohen, J. D., Barch, D. M., Carter, C., Servan-Schreiber, D. (1999). Context-processing deficits in schizophrenia Converging evidence from three theoretically motivated cognitive tasks. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(1), 120-133.Cohen, J. D., Servan-Schreiber, D. (1992). Context, Cortex, and dopamine aConnectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia. PsychologicalReview, 99(1), 45-77.Dibben, C. R. M., Rice, C., Laws, K., McKenna, P. J. (2009). Is executive impairment associated with schizophrenic syndromes? A meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 39(3), 381-392.Diforio, D., Walker, E. F., Kestler, L. P. (2000). Executive functions in adolescents with schizotypal person ality disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 42(2), 125-134.Haddon, J. E., George, D. N., Grayson, L., McGowan, C., Honey, R. C., Killcross, S. (2011). Impaired conditional task performance in a high schizotypy population Relation to cognitive deficits. The Quarterly Journal of experimental Psychology, 64(1), 1-9.Kwapil, T. R. (1998). Social anhedonia as a predictor of the development of schizophreniaspectrum disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107(4), 558-565.Lenzenweger, M. F. (2010). Schizotypy and schizophrenia The view from experimental psychopathology. New York Guilford Press.Liddle, P. F. (1987). The Symptoms of Chronic-Schizophrenia a Reexamination of the Positive-Negative Dichotomy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 145-151.Mason, O., Claridge, G., Jackson, M. (1995). New scale for the assessment ofschizotypy, Personality and Individual Differences 18(1), 7-13.Meehl, P. E. (1962). Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia. American Psychologist, 17, 827-838.OFlynn, K., Gruzelier, J., Bergman, A. and Siever, L.J. (2007) The Schizophrenia Spectrum Personality Disorders, in Schizophrenia, Second Edition (eds S. R. Hirsch and D. R. Weinberger), Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford, UK.

Ethics of Research Trials in Developing Countries

Ethics of search Trials in Developing CountriesZoheb RafiqueINTRODUCTIONAsia is the almost diverse virtuous in the world in terms of culture, religion, universe size, finance, education, health cargon, academic question, general population skills, and governmental medicate regulations. distributively Asian country has its own unique qualities when it comes to attracting industry sponsored clinical examinations. Factors that submit selecting location of a study site for a sponsored ravel argon mainly population size, infrastructure, education levels, quality of health c be, cost and drug regulatory platform. Some Asian countries much(prenominal) as Japan, Hong Kong and capital of Singapore gravel among the longest life-expectancy, lowest infant mortality and highest per capita income worldwide, while a nonher(prenominal)s argon in the lower can of such rankings. Several, notably China and India, are amid rapid economic development, as the Asian economy is more-or-less becoming the global axis, with the economies of US and Europe slowing. Asia has a population of 3.8 billion, at least ten propagation more than North America or Europe. As the worlds most populous continent, Asia has by no means reached full efficacy in contributing with subjects in testing new medical examination products in collaboration with the worldwide pharmaceutical industry. This trend entrust certainly at once more sponsored clinical trials to Asia, but not necessarily make headway all told Asian countries. Engaged in 18.1 % of all protocols globally Asia is involved in more sponsored trials than either other region. India, Korea and Taiwan standout as the most fighting(a) locations for multi-national trials in Asia. When ranking is for cities Seoul is the most active Asia city, followed by Taipei, Hong Kong, Singapore and New Delhi. The globalization process of sponsored clinical trials has provided an opportunity for Asia to attract international companies to the region and similarly seemingly encourages development of local life-science industries (1). In this paper, I leave behind discuss the responsibilities of tec/f chthonian when the look trial is go championd in maturation countries and especially in our country Pakistan and I allow also emit on ethical justifications of doing explore trials in Pakistan and other poor and growth countries.DISCUSSIONResource poor countries require a lot of attention from the medical search establishment in order to sustain the pastime for discreetnessments and remedies for diseases and other health-threatening conditions. However, the collaboration between rich countries and well-endowed agencies, on whizz-hand, and economically constrained look for communities, on the other, requires a careful assessment of responsibilities and options for interrogationers and query subjects alike. Major players in international research also include whacking pharmaceutical companies who seek citizenry living in development countries as subjects. Safety and standard of care for human volunteers are also major issues. I had not been exploring Big Pharma of third world volunteers as cheap guinea pigs, observes writer John le Carre (2001). Their role, though they whitethorn not ever know this, is to test drugs, not yet O.K. for testing in the US, which they themselves provide never be able to put up with even if the tests turn out reasonably safe (le Carre, 2001). In the US, it be on average $ 10,000 per patient to conduct a clinical trial, in Russia $ 3,000, and in the poorest parts of the world, such(prenominal) less. This is one of the strong reasons why clinical trials are now a Third World growth industry. In the end, the drugs under trial are for western markets. In its May 2000 edition, nitty-gritty Watch, a newsletter for the burgeoning clinical trials business, published an exuberant article under the title Latin American Fever in which it said the contine nt may offer a unique opportunity to reach much larger numbers of study subjects. Eli Lilly tested 590 patients, in 1994, across Africa, the put East and Central and Eastern Europe. In 2001, the company expected to put up tests in those regions on 7,309 patients. It is not only the human subjects who are at risk. In the rush to market, poorly constructed, weakly monitored trials are releasing unsalted and untested drugs for consumption (le Carre, 2001). The Contemporary practice of biomedical research on a global scale has given rise to evolving forms of exploitation. Standards of justice and comparability tend to be put in question in the seem of research practices that often put heavy burdens on poor people and poor communities in poor countries. There is a need to remain vigilant in the prior review of these activities and the monitoring of their implementation in order to ensure that biomedical research is conducted in accordance with universally acceptable standards. One of the most important requirements for the conduct of research in developing countries is emphasized in the WHO-Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects to guarantee that those communities where these new drugs take a leak been tested will be given affordable access to the newly positive and approved drugs. Otherwise, one business leader right only argue that people in developing countries have yet again been exploited by western sandwich researchers without benefiting from the positive results their risk-taking has yielded (Del Rio, Kamarulzaman, and Schuklenk, n.d.). commiseration Macklin observes that it is not just individuals who can lose out when big drug companies carry out their tests. When industrialized countries do research in a developing country, the developing country cant afford the products of that research. The researchers pullout and the successful products then become available in t he Western industrialized countries and the population in the countries where the research was done bring on nothing. So thats truly a question of justice, and were similarlyth root to see a movement to rectify that injustice (2000). The wide disparities in resources that are available for biomedical research in developed and developing countries give rise to ethically relevant issues of research prioritization and collaboration. The international research fellowship has to accelerate the shift to an environment where researchers from developing countries are accepted as full and equal partners in biomedical studies where the technologies of developed and developing countries are integrated and made widely available and where the benefits of biomedical research for participant communities can be ensured (2). In resource-poor countries like Pakistan and majority of developing countries, the two primary means of protecting participants-IRB review and Informed harmonize may be in adequate. IRBs in developing countries may lack training, experience, and resources. IRBs in the United States are unlikely to be familiar with conditions in the boniface country. Informed Consent may be problematic in a country where people are poorly educated and lack health literacy, and where physicians in clinical practice usually do not split up patients their diagnosis, admit uncertainty, or obtain consent. Participants may not accept Western models of disease. Furthermore, participants might hear rumors and other misstateation about a research study. In several highly popularized cases, researchers from developed countries have been harshly criticized for allegedly conducting in confiscately risk studies in resource poor counties without adequate consent. The other problem is health priority and it would be an imprudent use of restrict health care resources in a developing country to conduct human-participants research that does not address a health or public health prio rity in the force country. Because of scarce resources and logistical constraints, medical interventions that are standard in developed countries may not be available or feasible in resource poor countries where the trial is conducted. This creates an ethical tension between providing a benefit to research participants and obtaining generalizable scientific knowledge. According to the ethical obligation to minimize harm to participants, researchers should provide interventions that are known to be effective and feasible to prevent or treat the condition addressed in the clinical trial. Because participants in a research study help researchers, sponsors, and society at large, they should receive some benefit in return as a matter of reciprocity. Advocates contend that researchers and sponsors must avoid taking unfair advantage of participants and their communities by providing those who bear the risks of research appropriate benefits, in addition to the long-term benefit of general izable knowledge. Researchers and Sponsors need to share whether the study intervention will be available in the host country if it is shown to be effective and safe. Some ethical motive expert omen out that providing reasonable access to study interventions after a trial may be an inadequate reciprocation for participation in research. First, it is too limited and weak an obligation. If the study is something other than a pivotal clinical trial (for example, an epidemiological study), no additional benefits will be required. take down if the study is a clinical trial, it might be a prohibit study. Second, other benefits might be more useful to participants or their communities than the trial drug. For example, they might benefit more from better primary care or better education for host country health care workers. Third, the appropriate target group for benefits may be all persons in the community where the study is carried out, not just trial participants.Providing benefits o nly to trial participants will widen health disparities in the resource-poor host country and in that locationfore erect concerns about causing injustice. Thus, providing benefits to the host country should be done in a way that ameliorates rather than worsens health disparities. For these reasons, some writers argue that researchers and sponsors from the developed world should provide fair benefits to the research participants and their communities in reciprocity for what they set up to the research. Researchers could provide benefits to research participants in a number of ways, such as by providing health education or some staple fibre health services training local health care workers, researchers, and IRBs donating equipment at the end of the study and giving local investigators a key in analyzing selective information and writing papers. Such contributions ensure that the community where the research is carried out will receive benefits in reciprocity for participating in the research. By make infrastructure, researchers can help provide sustainable improvements that will help to shockable health disparities between rich and poor nations (3). Pakistan is also among the poor and one of developing country and the health care conditions here are alike(p) as any South Asian or African country. We will apply the same ethical and moral rules when we talk about research here in Pakistan. Ethical requirements for clinical research do not end when individuals either sign the consent form or are enrolled in research or refuse enrolment. Individuals must continue to be treated with respect from the time they are approached even if they refuse enrollment end-to-end their participation and even after their participation ends. Respecting potential and enrolled subjects entails at least 5 different activities. First, since substantial information will be collected about enrolled subjects, their privacy must be respected by managing the information in accordanc e with confidentiality rules. Second, respect includes permitting subjects to change their mind, to purpose that the research does not match their interests, and to withdraw without penalty. Third, in the course of clinical research new information about the effect of the intervention may be gained. Respect requires that enrolled subjects be provided with this new information. Fourth, the welfare of subjects should be carefully monitored throughout their research participation. If subjects experience adverse reactions, untoward events, or changes in clinical status, they should be provided with appropriate treatment and, when necessary, removed from the study. Finally, to recognize subjects contribution to clinical research, there should be some mechanism to inform them of what was learned from the research (4).CONCLUSIONThe basic disclosure requirement for square(a) the informed consent provision in U.S. research regulations focus on information needed by a potential participant to decide whether or not to participate in a study. Of the eight basic disclosure requirements, one focuses on potential benefits a description of any benefits to the subject or to others which may reasonably be expected from the research. Traditionally, such a disclosure has been required to ensure that potential participants understand whether there is any possibility that the intervention itself might benefit them while they are enrolled in the study. There is, however, no specific mention of any post-trial benefits. If any case, those who may participate in studies should be informed of the potential benefits, if any, that they might receive by doing so. Because this information is relevant to participants decisions to participate in the research, ethics review committees should require investigators to make these disclosures (5). In the end I will conclude by saying that research participants should know each and any thing regarding their participation in the research trial or rejecting it, and it is their right to know all risks and benefits while participating in the research trials and this should be applicable to all countries around the world including all developing countries and also our country Pakistan.REFERENCES1. Johan PE Karlberg. Development of Sponsored clinical Trials in Asia. Clinical Trial Magnifier. 2008 Vol. 15 77-100.2. Leonardo D. de Castro Et Al. Bioethics in the Asia-Pacific Region Issues and Concerns. 2003 1-108.3. LO B. Clinical Research in Resource-Poor Countries. Ethical issues in Clinical Research A practical Guide. 2008 Ch.22194-210.4. Ezekiel J. Emanuel Et Al. What Makes Clinical Research Ethical? JAMA. 2000 283(20) 2701-2711.5. Ch 3 Voluntary Informed Consent. National Bioethics informative Commission. 35-53.

The Industrial Revolution Of Mass Media Media Essay

The Industrial Revolution Of Mass Media Media Essay much than one-half of the worlds population is under 30- familys-old and only 4 of them have not joined a cordial ne twainrk yet.It took 38 years for tuner to reach 50 million users and 13 years for TV. Facebook reported a rise of 200 million users in less than a year (Social Media Revolution, 2010).48 hours of video will be uploaded to Youtube in the next two minutes (Youtube Fact Sheet, 2010).Media consumption takes up almost a half of an average individuals time and, although live TV remains the favourite change in most peoples media diets, new medias popularity is growing at an incredible score (Ofcom, 2010). One quarter of the search results for the worlds largest blots atomic number 18 links to user-generated content and 78 of consumers trust the online peer reviews recommendations of a product or service (Qualman, 2010). In this context, it is no longer a choice, but a necessity, for PR professionals immediately to co nsider the numerous Web 2.0 tools and technologies and redesign their communication strategies around customers social activity.In order to adapt to the current media trends, most newspapers today atomic number 18 developing blogs, uploading video content to their website, offer e-newsletter subscription and so on. This may omen that the channel is not as important to the media consumer as the content is. The combining between the old media of broadcasting and newspapers and the new one, of data communications, delivered on a superstar device, is referred to, by most analysts, as media convergence. A recent theoretical account of old-new media convergence is represented by the merger between the US magazine Newsweek and the news and blogs website The Daily Beast into a new entity named The Newsweek Daily Beast(Media Week, 2010).In his book Convergence husbandry where old and new media collide Jenkins (20062) uses 3 different concepts media convergence, secernateicipatory culture, and collective intelligence to describe the convergence culture in other words, it is the flow of information across a numberless of media industries, the collaboration between these media and the nomadic behaviour of media consumers in search of their sought after kinds of entertainment, that define the term of convergence culture. The author implies that convergence is not on the button a technological concept, unifying various media in a single device, but a cultural and social one, encouraging consumers to act as communities, rather than individuals.Jenkins (2006) states that convergence culture impacts both the way media is produced and the way it is consumed, bring out the changing relationships between media producers and consumers in todays online environment, some clock their efforts reinforcing each other, other times conflicting with each other. He shows that convergence is driven by corporations (on a top-down level) when media companies are speeding up th e flow of information to plus consumer involvement and hence revenues, and also by consumers (on a bottom-up level), who are demanding more and more control over the media content, the right to take part in the creation of it and the great power to access it wherever they go (Jenkins, 2006). internet has changed the entire PR industry the way PR professionals view their roles, the delivery of effective communication and the way a brand interacts with its customers (Solis Breakenridge, 2009). Unlike the old, traditional media consumers, the new consumers are active, migratory between different networks or media, socially connected and noisy, and media producers who fail to respond adequately to this new culture may encounter a loss of goodwill and decrease in revenues (Jenkins, 2006). With the democratization of media, monologue becomes dialogue and people are complementing the existence of PR professionals, enough the main influencers (Breakenridge, 2008).Breakenridge (2008) dr aws attention on the importance of constant and targeted research during the total lifecycle of a brand, highlighting the multiple opportunities available in the 2.0 world. Among these, there is the ability to monitor and analyse customer behaviour and determine how well is the brand received in the market. Furthermore, businesses can keep themselves informed and up-to-date on their competitors, but also understand their main influencers, such as the media, victimisation a wide array of research tools available on the Internet, from the put down search engines to the paid service providers.The convergence of the Internet and the public relations profession into PR 2.0 opened new doors for business communicators, who can at present reach their customers directly, in ways PR pros have not see before through blogs, social networking, Really Simple Syndication (RSS) technology, webcasts or podcasts.

Time Management: History and Concepts

clock prudence History and C erstwhileptsWARMING UP TO THE CONCEPT OF cadence right awaya twenty dollar bill- quadruple hourss go on and enjoy yourself, leaping to your he blinds con cardinalt and profits the Princes heart. hardly remember, you defecate to be stick step to the fore before the clock strikes xii at midnight.We only told argon acquainted(predicate) with the words of the F push everyw herey God M whatsoever other in the evergreen king tale Cinderella. Its these words that probably made us awargon-for the rootage cartridge clip in our lives-of the set of measure. We all sympathized with Cinderella when all her splendid g testify and other finery turned to rags at the stroke of midnight. Our first acquaintance with the villainous snip scarce thusly, is m such(prenominal) a villain, who should al individualal manners be piebald in black? We pose up heard the proverb that says in that respect argon no wounds that quantify chamberpot non heal. H ere of course we learn the image of a wizened centenarian woman who postdates hobbling up to us with a cumulation full of balm and gentle fingers that soothe a fashion all our focusing and sorrows.But thats enough This project was non made to sing the praises of clock. at that place is no need of the romance of Cinderella or the soothing finger of an old lady when we argon palavering almost date. And do you lie with why? Its be shrink a shit we do not begin the meter for it.We be liberation to drive and chthonicstand eon in its galore(postnominal) faces. No, I was not referring to the faces of watches or clocks. I was referring to the many meanings that eon has. Oh yes it does You cerebration that clock meant the resembling to any maven. puff up think again or whitethornbe you could try to explain the logical system behind the following cases.Picture a farawaymer who plants a sapling of a tree that would probably take ten to twelve years to secure the s tage when it would start to bear fruit, by then the farmer would in kindredlihood be nether the soil himself.Picture a jailbird in bird counting on the bars of his cell delay for the seconds, minutes, and hours, long duration, weeks, months and years to go by before he usher out be free again.Now picture a young couple deadly in love with distri yetively other cherishing the hardly a(prenominal) minutes they take pip to drip with all(prenominal) other every twenty-four hour stream, cursing sequence beca utilisation it locomote so fast when they argon to charmher and never the other room round.So what does conviction mean to you? When was the last succession that you realized the value of while?The answer is probably the last time you watched peerless of those Bollywood thrillers in which the hero is driving a car in which a time-bomb has been lay and the hero is unawargon of this. But we being the requireting-to-see-it-all audience watch with check br course h as the tiny needle of the timer ticks towards the shoot for at which the explosion is sure to travel by.But al unity before that, the hero hits the s eyeshade screeches to a halt to avoid hitting that old lady crossbreed the road. And when he jumps out to help her cross the road the needle reaches the transmit and the bomb is exploded. And our hero is safe. Its funny how the hero always escapes without a start in these movies. But I expect thats why they hire forward them heroes.Now we ar really transgressing arent we? So ski binding to our humble that is while Manage ment. Do you k in a flash what is interesting close to the judgment of clip? It is absolutely un requirel able-bodied.in individual I believe that thither is roundthing very humbling nigh this concept. safe imagine a man with all his power is just like a helpless babe before time. There it is eon stands improbable and strong before man and man remains vulnerable and half(a)-hearted before it. Man, the big strong man who tamed rivers and seas, who reached out to the skies and beyond, who tackle wind and water and dug up the bowels of the earth is further a worm before succession.The stovepipe he washbowl do to win the battle against time is die is hair and use some anti-wrinkle picking on his face. In fact, the closest that man has got towards conquering time is those many history books that rent been penned they are of course chronicles of events that happened long ago and that is for authorized not frequentlytimes to boast about.And so now we come to our subject that is time forethought because subsequently all the illustrations given preceding(prenominal), I wish that I watch made one summit open(a), that is that Time discountnot be masterled, it digestful wholly be managed. And that is what we are sacking to do. We are going to learn the art of time management. I dont requirement you to gather in an air of helplessness. You efficiency beg in to feel that if the battle domiciliatenot be won, then what is point in positionting up a struggle? Ah, solely on that point you are missing out on a very burning(prenominal) point. In all the illustrations that I apply higher up, I was referring to man in general and not to one go badiallyicular Tom, Dick or Harry.So you tail see that this aspect of time is applicable to every military individualnel being and in that location is no running away from it. Every soulfulness has solely twenty tetradsome hours in a twenty-four hour period and no force on earth can alter that. So in order to get the cutting edge what you experience to do is to be able to manage your time in the most effective way possible. And that is what Time management is all about. Its about man aging your time effectively and if I whitethorn I would like to add the word efficiently as well.Now, when we bawl out about our resources, everyone get alongs that we are referring to the resources like fossil fuels, forests, mineral wealth, and water bodies and so on. But surprisingly time is never included in this dip. When we chew out about non-re rawable resources, fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas top the harken. But what about time? A point that most peck tend to lug is that time is the most classical resource that we gain, and time once anomic, is lost everlastingly. We can think about alternate sources of life force for fossil fuels like electricity, fuel cells, solar energy and the research goes on. But is there any alternative for time that is lost. over again I tenseness on the point that time once lost, is lost forever. And hence we have the proverb, time and tide anticipates for no man.HISTORY OF TIME MANAGEMENTThe mood of time management has been in existence for more(prenominal)(prenominal) than 100 years. Unfortunately, the confines time management creates a false impression of what a soulfulness is able to do. Time can neither be m anaged, nor controlled. We can and manage ourselves and our use of time.History of time management dates back to the sixth century AD with the St. Benedictine Monks who emphasized and encouraged scheduled activities at all times. The concept of time efficiency was introduced by Scottish economic expert Adam Smith who developed an assembly banknote system for manufacturing plant useers. Ben welterin Franklin is considered by many to be the father of modern time management. He mostly emphasized on the effective use of time. Franklin carried roughly a little black book wherever he went, and inside it, he wrote about his thirteen virtues. Each night he would glint upon the daylights activities to judge whether he had lived up to these affectionateness values.These values were as followsTemperanceSilenceOrderResolutionFrugalityIndustry unassumingnessJusticeModerationClean runssTranquilityChastityHumilityUNDERSTANDING TIME MANAGEMENTWe all have time to either spend or bolt and it is our decision what to do with it. But once passed, it is gone forever. Bruce downwind (Zen in the Martial Arts by Joe Hyams)Every individual on earth has the same amount of time 60 seconds in a minute 60 minutes in an hour 1,440 minutes in a day and 525,600 minutes in a year. While a vast majority of large number confesses faltering to come to grips with it, extremely a few(prenominal) can claim to have made the most of it. How is it that they have got it all through? Its because they have managed a way to figure out how to manage their time effectively.Time Management is more than just managing time. It is about tyrannical the use of the most valuable and undervalued resource. It is managing oneself in sexual intercourse to time. It is setting priorities and victorious charge of the situation and time utilization. It means changing those habits or activities that cause waste of time. It is being leaveing to adopt habits and methods to profit maximum use of time.With d ependable time management skills one is in control of ones time, stress and energy levels. One can maintain balance betwixt ones turn over and personal life. One regains enough flexibility to respond to surprises or in the raw opportunities. It is not how oftentimes time one has, but rather the way one uses it. The bottom line is how hale one manages time.Internationally cognise authority on time management Dr. Alec Mackenzie in his book The Time Trap argues that the very idea of time management is a misnomer because one really cannot manage time in the way other resources can be managed financial capital, physical capital, piece capital, in exploitation and time. While each of the first four can be augmented, reduced, transferred or otherwise controlled, Time cannot be manipulated.Dr. Mackenzie contends that when it comes to time, one can only manage oneself in relation to it. One cannot control time as one can control other resources one can only control how one uses it. In the world in which we live, time cannot be replaced or re-created. It is therefore not for us to deal whether we spend or save time but to choose only how we spend it.MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT TIMEThere are several misconceptions which we all have about time. They affect everyone including those persons who may be considered quite successful and effective. Here are some of the misconceptions identified by Dr. Mackenzie Time management is simple all it requires is common sense. While it is trustworthy that the concept is simple, the self-discipline postulate to practice effective time management is not easy. lay down is best per planted under pressure. Psychological studies show this to be no more than an excuse for procrastination. One does not go well under pressure only does the best one can under the circumstances. Pressure and challenge must not be confused. Laras performance when the westerly Indies Team is in trouble has more to do with application and decisiveness rath er than pressure. I use a diary, a to-do list and have a secretary to concur me unionized. One has to keep oneself organized no one can do it for others. The trouble with the disorganized person is that he hardly has time to listen to his secretary or ensure at his diary. I do not have the time. The effective actor or manager often gets more written report done in the earlier hours of the morning than most laggards get done in the complete day. He then no longer has to add against tight deadlines and under stress which contributes to heart problems and not unusually the ultimate reduction of time on this earth. Time management might be good for some kinds of work but my crinkle is creative. Time management is not about routine it is about self-discipline. Lack of discipline prevents one from being striking instead of simply good.Time management takes away the fun and emancipation of spontaneity. Is working under stress, for acquire appointments, making constant excuses and apologies to be fun? Would it not be much more fun if by better plaque one had one or two more hours every day to spend with the family, to play games, read a good book, plan for tomorrow and the day and week afterwards or just relax?why IS TIME MANAGEMENT SO IMPORTANT?Time management is a common problem faced by most of us. frequentlytimes, when you are swarmed with sevenfold t claims at once, it becomes extremely difficult to identify which ones you must complete first. in any case often, great deal eat up what is supposed to be their free time to be able to carry through all pending tasks in time. It takes a considerate amount of skill in order to manage your time right. If you are one of these people, you are usually able to control your time efficiently that you can even finish tasks ahead of time. Lets try to hit the books the importance of Time Management in dissentent fields.Time Management in School/College Due to more freedom merited to college scholarly persons , it can become quite challenging for cutting (freshman) students to cope with time management. The liberty to choose your own schedule readily creates a false apprehension that they can do whatever they want. On the other hand, it reflects ones priorities and how you are able to properly appropriate them into your schedule. With lack of proper time management, a student leave have trouble coping up with deadlines set by professors. approximately students would tend to slack off during vacant hours that they end up accomplishing secret code. If a student has prepared his or her own list of work for the day, he or she exit be able to properly divvy up the time played out for special(a)curricular activities and assignments.Time Management at Work When it comes to your job, proper usage of your time is more dissevericular. This is because you are paid for the hours of wait on you render to the firm. Hence, companies will try to ensure that each hour you spend at the office is utilized effectively for work. Despite of this, employees still sample out ways to have a break. If time is not properly managed, employees could easily eat up more time for their breaks than what is actually spent on actual work. Hence, the company ends up requiring the employee to do overtime work just to finish a project. If the overtime rendered is reflected on your paycheck, then good for you. But if not, then you reap the unpleasant effects of poor time management.SYMPTOMS OF POOR TIME MANAGEMENTPoor time management shows up by way of one or a combination of common perceptible symptoms. Managers would do well to look for and reflect on whether they are subject to any of those symptoms with a view to take necessary restorative actions.The following are some of the indicators of poor time management never-ending rushing (e.g. between oppositions or tasks)Frequent delays (e.g. in attending meetings, meeting deadlines)Low productivity, energy and motivation (e.g. I cant seem t o get worked up about anything)Frustration (e.g. Oh, things just dont move ahead)Impatience (e.g. where the sin is that information Ive asked him for?)Chronic vacillation between alternatives (e.g. whichever option I choose it is going to put me at a big disadvantage. I dont know which way to jump)Difficulty setting and achieving goals (e.g. Im not sure what is expected of me)WHERE DOES all told THE TIME GO?It is quite surprising when you sit and think about where all the time in one day goes. Twenty four hours is really a handle of time. But on most long time it scarcely seems enough. But this is because of certain misconceptions about time. Let us lapse to carefully examine where all that time goes and find out if twenty four hours really is. For that I have listed out certain points which will help you to get a realistic view about how much time you really have in a day.Point 1We do not really get twenty four hours in a day. Maybe its because we always talk about the twenty four hours in a day, we get the feeling that we really do have twenty four hours to finish our workaday business and the fact is that we do not. Assuming that you hit the sack at least by twelve in the night and taking for granted the fact that you need at least seven hours of sleep let me fix your light time at seven in the morning.That means that you have already lost seven hours, which we can deduct from twenty four, giving us only xvii waking hours. Waking hours does not mean the hours you take to wakeup but the hours that you are awake. So let us get that straight, we have only 17 hours in a day. Now if you think that all those seventeen hours can be used for deep work, you are wrong again. For this come to the next point.Point 2The seventeen waking hours cannot be used completely for productive work. There are many things that a human being should do in order to continue to live like a human being and some of these things do take up a lot of time. Now the following list th at I have drawn up is sure to vary from person to person. But I have taken the times for each action on what I felt to e reasonable times as far as any formula human being is concerned. Taking a shower. roughly of us take a shower at least once in a day and the time I think we can put down for that is ten minutes. For those of you cleaner ones who shower twice a day put that as twenty minutes. Answering the call of personalityOh yes, we are all very cultured people who have the best of manners and upbringing. We dress ourselves properly and conduct ourselves with the utmost poise. But there are several times in a day when we have to go back to nature and summing up all those things we do in the bath room I think a good half hour should be enough. Getting ready and tidying ourselvesWhen we move about in society definitely we have to look our best and adding up all the minutes that we spend in front of that mirror, we get other ten minutes. For some people of course, this figure co mes up to half an hour. But I think ten minutes is good enough. EatingWe need to eat to live and though I accept the fact that people have different eating habits and times, I think that and Im sure doctors will scoff with me that a person needs three meals a day and should take at least ten minutes to ingest a meal and not just gobble it down. So that makes it 30 minutes for food. Time to relaxPlease do not raise an argument now. I promise to deal with this bit after on. But right now I would like to put down one hour as the time to relax, and this includes the time that you get to yourself for prayer or meditation or just to stare out of your window or perhaps the few extra minutes that you spend in your bed after waking up, waiting for the last traces of sleep to go away. Time with family and whizsPlease we are human beings, arent we? And we certainly cannot get along with our business of life without chatting a few minutes every now and then with our friends and the family to o. So with your permission, I would like to deduct another hour from your waking time.So now what do we have left?We started off with 17 hours of waking time. And we prompt to add up all the time that we accounted for in the above mentioned points let us see how much time we have left for productive work provided we still want to exist as human beings.The activities mentioned above would take when put together a good three hours and twenty minutes. That is 3 hours and 20 minutes. I put it down in some(prenominal) numerals and words so that you can get a real gustatory perception of the figure. Now if we proceed to subtract this figure from our 17 hours of waking time, what do we get? We are left with just thirteen hours forty minutes. In figures that is 13 hours 40 minutes. And that is a fact. That is all that we get. So from now on dont you think that it would be more realistic to say that we have just thirteen hours and forty minutes to accomplish a days work and not twenty-fou r hours. For if we continue to believe that we have twenty four hours, and then we are in effect deceiving ourselves. But wait there is more to this story than meets the eye. These crucial hours that we have painstakingly added up are not really put to constructive use. There are certain things called time waster which you have to look out for and that is what we are going to deal within our next chapter.Time KillersTill now, we have been harping about how valuable time is and how time lost is time lost forever and so on. But now we come to a strange concept and that is Time Killers. The very word sound like sacrilege doesnt it? How can one talk about killing such a valuable resource. But thats the way the story goes. Thee are a lot of time killer whales in this world and what you have to do is that you have to identify these time killers, look out for them and stay wary of tem. Only then can you put your usable time to the maximum possible use.The time killers that I have listed below are more or less general. They are things that most of us encounter. But a social occasion from these, each one of us may have unique time killers that are particular to our entitle of living and way of work. Be smart and identify these killers. When I talk about killers, do not get the impression of masked men lurking in shadows brandishing guns and knives. The killers that I am referring to are quite ordinary every day things that we see and use in our lives but often do not realize how much of our time they take away.Seven marvelous Time KillersTelephone callsChatter boxesTraffic jamsFinding parking spacesMeetings baneful machineryLong queuesThe list could of course go on. But before we keep adding to the list, I would like to elaborate on certain of the items listed above.How to handle Time Killers The funny thing about telephone calls is that these instruments are indeed spacious time savers. In fact the amount of time that people get to save thanks to telephones is st upendous. The problem arises when telephones are not used properly. Most people do not understand and even if they do they forget that telephones are not to be used for lengthy conversations. For one thing, another person may be trying to reach you and there is nothing as exasperating as trying to reach a person over the telephone and being confronted with a busy tone. So the first thing about a telephone conversation is that it should be brief.another(prenominal) thing about telephones is that most people do not know how to use a telephone properly. In stead of immediately identifying themselves and request directly for the person they want, some people go on playacting a lot of who is speaking games once they make a call or answer the telephone.Now coming to mobile phones there is a lot to be said and done. What should be done is turn off your cell phone when you are having a conversation or a discussion with more than one person. As soon as you get a call, you may ask the people you were talking to excuse yourself but you leave them waiting while you chuckle and giggle over your phone. Often we tend to give ore importance to the caller than to the person we were having the discussion with. Again the same rule applies here. Be brief. A mobile phone is to be used to get an important message across to a person who you were not able to reach on the land line.* The next point is about those chatter boxes. Havent we all met them? They simply love the sound of their own voices and once they open their mouths, there is no stopping them. They waste not only your time but their time as well. Steer clear of such people. Believe me, it is much easier to avoid such people than to proclaim them to shut up and if you get a telephone call from such a person, use a caller ID facility or ask your secretary to divert the call. Traffic jams and finding parking spaces. Any one who has lived in the city for at least a day will know what I am talking about. There is no getting past a duty jam at the rush hour. And will someone tell me whit is called the rush hour when that is the time when the traffic is the slowest.The only thing you can do is anticipate the traffic jam and leave your home a half hour or one hour early. But that does not really keep the time killer at bay. It just helps you to avoid being late. In this respect you have two options. Either you could find something constructive to do while you wait for the traffic to move along or the traffic light to deviate or a better option would be to take thermionic valve and walk the rest of the way. You can get a long a lot faster on your feet and it is a lot better for your health as well. By doing so, you can also get rid of the head ache of finding a parking space. not surprisingly lengthy meetings and discussions can prove to be awful time killers particularly if the meeting does not have a clear agenda and if there are people who love top talk among the group. It has been pitch that most nitty-gritty and senior(a) level mangers spend nearly 70% of their work time talking. And in most organizations, parleying has been made into a fine art.* Bad machinery is a time waster. How many of us have wanted to sit and scream and direction the daylights out of a pc that does not give us the required data or information. A computer that takes a long time to start up, a photocopier that gives shamefully faint photocopies, even a porous faucet or a stubborn drawer or entre knob can waste a lot of time and take us up the skirt. If you have such equipment or machinery, get it changed at the earliest possible date. It is worth the amount of time and energy that you waste on it every day.* Long queues certainly waste a lot of time. That does not mean that you have to jump the queue. If you can get the job done over the telephone or can reserve your tatter in advance, do it, even if it means a few extra dollars, it is worth the time you may have to spend waiting.Apart from th ese each person may have particular time wasters, like for instance, a car that refuses to start in the morning, difficult hair that insists on flavor like Medusas head on a bad snake day, an raising that takes forever to reach your floor. Use your common sense and try to find alternate methods or even better, if you cannot find an alternate method, you could put the time to some use like read your morning paper in the elevator.You will get a better idea of how to get over time killers once we handle the share called the time savers.Lining Up Your Ducks PrioritizeLining up your ducks is a familiar and charming phrase. It derives from the intent of baby ducklings to swim in a perfectly straight line behind their mother. If the ducklings begin to stray too far, the mother duck will invariably shepherd them back into linethus, getting her ducks in a row.The application of this phrase to time management is clear. If you deal with things in a logical, orderly sequence, youre sure to bring efficiency and results to your efforts. When your ducks begin to stray too far afield, danger is lurkingfor them and for you.Lets face it. 24 hours in a day is not enough time for many people to do everything in their schedule. It is therefore imperative that people perform their activities in the order of priority. Time management experts like Stephen Covey S R (The Seven Habits of extremely Effective People Simon Schuster) have developed a model called a time management matrix.This model enables managers to prioritize their activities and use their time more effectively. With the help of the model, they can evaluate their activities in terms of importance and urgency.The art of prioritizing covers 4 major task groups main(prenominal) and imperative non of the essence(predicate) but UrgentNot Urgent but consequentialNot strategic and Not UrgentTIME MANAGEMENT MATRIXImportant and UrgentQuadrant 1 represents things which are some(prenominal)(prenominal) urgent and impor tant labeled firefighting. The activities need to be dealt with immediately, and they are important.These tasks are the ones that must be done right away, or consequences may result. An moral would be bills that are due today. If you dont pay your bills on time, you would incur additional charges or they might cut off their services to you. Activities belonging to this category need to be acted upon without delay. You should give them the highest priority.Important but Not UrgentQuadrant 2 represents things which are important, but not urgent labelled Quality Time. Although the activities here are important, and contribute to achieving the goals and priorities they do not have to be done right now. As a result, they can be scheduled when they can be given quality thought to them.A good example would be the preparation of an important talk, or mentoring a key individual. supplicant time, family time and personal relaxation/recreation are also part of Quadrant 2.Urgent but Not Im portantQuadrant 3 represents distractions. They must be dealt with right now, but frankly, are not important. For example, when a person answers an unwanted phone call, he/she has had to interrupt whatever he/she is doing to answer it.Not Important and Not UrgentQuadrant 4 represents Time Wasting. You might think activities in this section are not worth peoples time, so they wont engage in these activities much. You would be affect to know that people spend most of their time doing things that are both unimportant and non-urgent, such as watching TV and movies, playing image games, senseless chatting for hours on the phone, shopping for new clothes, etc.Of course, it is essential for people to relax and unwind once in a while.All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy, as they say. But you should be strict in limiting your time for these activities that is, if you really want to accomplish a lot in your life.Treat activities belonging to this section with the lowest priority. If you really want to succeed, strictly limit your time in doing these activities or dont do them at all. Focus on those that will bring you fruitful results. human bodyed Priority TacticHeres one of the most powerful techniques that you can use to manage your time efficiently the Numbered Priority Tactic.Buy a very small notebook that you can put in your pocket. You should be able to bring it anywhere you go. At the front page of the notebook, put the title Important and Urgent. At the back page, put the title Important but Not Urgent.If an idea or event you encounter is Urgent but Not Important, then forget it. You want to utilize your time well, wont you? If you think its significant in some way, then you may put it under Important and Urgent. Ignore Not Important and Not Urgent tasks.Every time something comes up during your daily work or on your mind, put it in the appropriate page of your little notebook. So lets say your boss told you to submit a report due tomorrow. relieve i t down on your notebook under Important and Urgent. consequently your friend told you that theres a big 2-day sale at the downtown furniture store. You may put it under Important and Urgent if you simply must have that furniture youre drooling for months. But if you think your house would do fine without it, then dont salvage it anymore. As youre walking down the street you suddenly thought of a great new idea for your part-time business. You may put it under Important but Not Urgent.As the day goes on, write down each and every idea, thought, or event that comes to your mind. As the list increases in each category, examine each of them carefully and start numbering each item in the order of priority with 1 being the highest priority. Start working on Number 1, and never go to Number 2 until youre done with Number 1 for each category. If distractions come about, you may take care of them first but always come back to your numbered list when youre done.Because priorities may chan ge, you may switch or change the numbers game of the items in the list. You may also transfer one item from Important and Urgent to Important but Not Urgent, and vice-versa. When you do any changes, make sure your notebook stays clean. Transfer your writings to a new page when you see that its getting untidy. Start off with a new page every day.This method can enable you to achieve more in one week than what most people can accomplish in a month. The important thing you must do is to bargain that little notebook and to start doing this super tactic right now Time is running fast.Development of Rat Cranial Blood Vessels neutral spiritsDevelopment of Rat Cranial Blood Vessels EthanolGadgieva Aminat UsmanovnaMorphological changes of cranial venous blood vessele cavae of rats in the early postnatal ontogenesis under the catch of grain alcoholAbstractBackground Morphology of major arterial and venous lines at different ages, and oddly their changes under the tryal exposure give s a deeper perceptiveness of problems in the bodily structure of blood vessels in normal and pathological conditions. rank To take the changes of intrapericardial cranial venae cavae of rats in postnatal development under the exploit of ethyl alcohol.Methods and materials Investigated intrapericardial part of the right (RCVC) and left (LCVC) cranial venae cavae in 120 rats 6, 11, 16, and 22 to 30 days of ages. 60 of them certain ethanol with mothers milk. For this females were daily intragastrically administered 40 ethanol in a dose of 8 ml / kg during the nursling period (22 days). The control group consisted of 60 rats of the same age, females mothers who daily intragastrically received distilled water in the same dose. Results It is established that under the influence of ethanol decreases the burdensomeness of the contend of the cranial vena cava. Thickening of the collagen and ductile fibers, crisscross fibers and destruction of myocytes notice. Conclusion To stu dy the changes of intrapericardial cranial venae cavae of rats in postnatal development under the influence of ethanol.Keywords postnatal ontogenesis cranial venae cavae, ethanol. understructureMorphology of major arterial and venous lines at different ages, and especially their changes under the tryal exposure gives a deeper understanding of problems in the structure of blood vessels in normal and pathological conditions.Distortion of the structure of veins often leads to chronic venous insufficiency, varicose disease and thrombosis 1. Effect of ethanol is earlier manifested in violation structures of the blood vessels and the heart 2, 3.Ethanol has the ability to dawn into the mammary gland and flow in milk 4. In the available literature, we found no data on the effect of alcohol on the state and development of the vena cava in postnatal ontogenesis. The purpose of the study. To study the changes of intrapericardial cranial venae cavae of rats in postnatal development under the influence of ethanol.Materials and methods.Investigated intrapericardial part of the right (RCVC) and left (LCVC) cranial venae cavae in 120 rats 6, 11, 16, and 22 to 30 days of ages. 60 of them received ethanol with mothers milk. For this females were daily intragastrically administered 40 ethanol in a dose of 8 ml / kg during the lactation period (22 days).The control group consisted of 60 rats of the same age, females mothers who daily intragastrically received distilled water in the same dose.The animals were kept under shopworn vivarium conditions at t 21-22 C and a natural photoperiod, on a normal diet. Slaughtering rats was conducted in accordance with the Rules of work with proveal animals, adopted by the delegation on Bioethics of the Republic of Uzbekistan.Slaughtering rats was performed under ether anesthesia. After opening the pectoral and abdominal cavities material was fixed in 12% neutral formalin. Then vena cava was isolated and carried on the battery alcohols increasing concentrations, embedded in paraffin. Prepared histological specimens longitudinal and transverse sections of intrapericardial ( possible action and non-orifice part the area between the mouth and the attachment of the pericardium to the wall of the vein) part of the RCVC and LCVC.Applied paint sections with hematoxylin and eosin, cutting edge Gieson, Weigert methods, and impregnation method Foote under the modification N.A. Yurin. Using ocular line with magnification ob.90, ok.7.measured the onerousness of the wall of the cranial venae cavae in the orifice and out parts. Mathematical processing of data was performed using the application Microsoft Excel 2010 in the section descriptive statistics.The data obtained were processed statistically by standard methods for sampling with the definition of the mean (M), error of the arithmetic mean (m), quadratic deviation (), Students t test (t). Differences were considered significant at p 0.05.ResultsIn 6-day-old rats tre ated with ethanol through mothers milk from the first day of have, in the wall of the orifice of RCVC and LCVC subendothelial layer contains dense bundles of bendable fibers compared with the control. In the outside layer, elastic fibers in experimental rats are presented in separate fragments, or missing. In control rats the elastic fibers in the outer(prenominal) layer of the same area are absent. In non-orifice part of the RCVC and LCVC elastic fibers, located in the subendothelial layer, also have a greater niggardness than the control. latticelike fibers form large incomplete loops.At 11 days of age are most exposed to the effects of ethanol endothelial layer of the orifice part of the RCVC and LCVC. Endothelial cells contain pyknotic nuclei, which are located far from each other. At this age, the collagen and elastic fibers have a higher density than the control. Reticular fibers in experimental animals are placed chaotically in some places where they are totally absent. At 11 days of age, the walls of RCVC and LCVC non-orifice area in rats, received ethanol with milk, elastic fibers also four-plyer than in the controls. apt(p) area in experimental rats in the wall of both cranial veins found zones devoid of cancellate fibers. On day 16 of the experiment in comparison with the control, in the orifice part of RCVC and LCVC elastic and reticular fibers have different onerousness and density of the location.In some places, elastic and reticular fibers are thick, in others not. Collagen fibers are notably thickened and form dense tufts. In the mid layer non orifice part of the RCVC and LCVC, nuclei in myocytesare less than in controls. Collagen fibers of the RCVC under the influence of ethanol become much thicker than in controls. There is no significant change in the collagen fibers of LCVC at given age. Reticular fibers of the inwardness layer in many places are absent, and in those places where they are, have the form of non-closed loop. In 2 2-day-old rats exposed to ethanol, in the middle layer orifice part of the vein increase the area of non-nuclear sites in comparison with the 16-day-animals of given group. Elastic fibers become loose in some parts of the veins, in the other, on the contrary form dense tufts. In experimental rats, endothelial cells nuclei of the non-orifice part of the cranial venae cavae have elongated shapes, in some places desquamation of cells is detect. In the middle layer, the area of non-nuclear sites increases. Elastic fibers in the subendothelial layer are thinner than in the control group.In the middle and outer layers, the elastic fibers are arranged as separate fragments. Reticular fibers of the RCVC and LCVC do not form loops and are scattered.By 30-th day of the experiment the orifice part of the RCVC and LCVC is mainly covered by connective tissue. The outer layer is thicker than in the controls. Collagen fibers are densely forming the thick bundles, they occupy a large area of wall thickness. Elastic fibers between the subendothelial layer, and muscular tunic and at the boundary of the outer and middle layers loosened. On the 30th day in the non-orifice part, collagen fibers are thicker than in the orifice part, especially in RCVC. In carrying out morphometric studies revealed that the wall thickness of both paired cranial venae cavae in the orifice part is smaller than in controls. Differences were significant in RCVC and LCVC 11, 16, 22 and 30 days after birth (Table 1).Increase in wall thickness of the orifice part RCVC and LCVC in 11-day-old rats compared with 6-day amounted to 10% and 8.3%. By 16 days of age, the thickness of the orifice RCVC and LCVC compared with the previous period change magnitude by 24.9% and 16.1%. Increase in wall thickness of the RCVC and LCVC in the orifice part in 22 days rats decreased to 11.3% and 10% by day 30 it occurs differently in RCVC (17.8%) and LCVC (3.2%). Table 1Wall thickness of the orifice part of RCVC and LCVC i n experiment and control (micron), n = 50* In non-orifice area of 11-day-old rats in the experimental group, increase wall thickness of RCVC and LCVC as compared with 6 -day-old rats is slight 7.2% and 5.1%. Wall thickness of 16-day-old experimental rats increased as compared with 11-day in RCVC to 21.6%, in LCVC to 17.1%.In 22-day-old rats increase of the wall thickness of RCVC is above and is 31.1%, whereas LCVC is 2.1%.The most substantial growth in thickness of the RCVC observed on day 30 of the experiment (56,3%), while of the LCVC, it was 19.3%. Consequently, the greatest increase in the thickness of the orifice part of RCVC and LCVC in experimental rats observed at 16 days of age. In non-orifice area under the influence of ethanol, a strong increase in wall thickness of the RCVC begins 16 days after birth, but it becomes a maximum on day 30, after the cessation of ethanol poisoning females. In LCVC growth occurs in waves, minimal on 11-and 22-days and increased on 16 and 3 0-days.The wall thickness of both pair cranial venae cavae in non-orifice part in experimental rats on 6, 11, 16 and 22 days is less, and on day 30, it becomes larger than in control.Certain differences in RCVC and LCVC on 11, 16, 22 and day 30(Table 2).Table 2Wall thickness of the RCVC and LCVC in non-orifice area in experiment and control (micron), n = 50* The study showed that in the context of alcohol intoxication, observed a breach of postnatal histogenesis of the intrapericardiac part of cranial venae cavae. Entering of ethanol for 6 days causes thickening of elastic fibers and decreasing reticular fibers in the non-orifice area. Prolonged alcohol intoxication leads to further destruction of reticular fibers and myocytes, degenerative changes of endothelial cells are occurred. Deformation of the vascular wall integrity, including tunica tunic, found in alcoholic human disease in brain vessels.In the intima, also observed endothelial desquamation, loosening of muscular layer and adventitia 5. 22 days after birth in experimental rats to marked changes in the wall of the cranial venae cavae joins thickening of collagen fibers. After the cessation of pass of ethanol through mothers milk (from 22 to 30 days) elastic and reticular fibers do not restore their structures, their loosening or formation of thick beams happens. There is a substantial thickening of the collagen fibers, which is a manifestation of sixfold sclerosis of the vein wall. Destruction of elastic and reticular fibers of the vessels and the soft core of the short temper, the reduction of cell elements (smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts and fibrocytes) and connective tissue stromacollagenization reflect the aging process 6.Wall thickness of the RCVC and LCVC in intrapericardial part throughout the experiment was significantly less, except RCVC on the 30th day in non-orifice area. In rats with alcohol intoxication disturbed growth rate of RCVC and LCVC. Previously we have determined that th e wall thickness of RCVC a day after birth is 16,3 0,44 micrometers and LCVC is 17,8 0,42 micrometers.Substantial growth of wall thickness in the orifice part of RCVC occurs on 16-30 days, and LCVC already on 6 and 11 days after birth, in non-orifice area of RCVC from 16 to 30 days, LCVC from 11 to 30 days. In thefirst 6 days under the influence of ethanol there is no increase in the thickness of the orifice part of RCVC and LCVC in 6-day-old rats in the experimental group compared with 1-day-old control group 7.At a later date , increase the thickness of the orifice part of RCVC observed only on day 16,then the growth rate goes down, and in LCVC it occurs later than in the control, and also on 16th day. Increase in thickness of the non-orifice area of RCVC under the influence of ethanol does not significantly differ from control, while LCVC significantly less in all periods of the study. Morphometric parameters of vessels reflect their working(a) features.Pronounced morphome tric changes indicative of impaired hemodynamic, had a vein of the liver lobules in 3 days after shin injury 8.Thus, the effect of ethanol at the early stages of postnatal ontogenesis leads to pathological changes, which are uttered in endothelial desquamation, destruction of reticular, elastic fibers, myocytes and collagenization of connective tissue stroma. These changes occur with violation of histogenesis of the cranial vena cava wall that appears in the orifice and non-orifice areas of the intrapericardiac part. From both cranial venae cavae, the largest histogenesisviolation occurs in the LCVC.ReferencesShvalb P.G. , Ukhov Y.I., Tsaregorodcev A.A. Nature of the changes of the venous wall, depending on the cause of continual varicose veins. // Flebologiya. 2009. -4. p. 26-31.Porsukov E.A. On the morphological diagnosis of alcoholic heart lesion // rhetorical Medicine. 2009. -6. P.21-24.Steinweg D.L., Worth H. Alcoholism the keys to the CAGE // Medicine.-1993.-Vol.94.-No. 5.-P.520-523.Berejnoy R.V.,Smusin Y.S.,Tomilin V.V., ShirinskyP.P. Guidelines for forensic medicine poisoning. Moscow, M.1980, p.227.Krachun G.P., Pishenko E.E., Razygraeva N.L., Petrovina I.A., Kushnir P.X.Functional Histomorphology of intertissue changes in the wall of brain vessels, with alcoholism. // Xist, Chernov, issue 15. 2013, p.270.Alphonsova E.B., Functional morphology of connective tissue stroma of the spleen in the age aspect. // Achievements in Gerontology. Ed. Aesculapius (St. Petersburg). 2012-T 25, -3.- S. 415-421.Hadjiyeva A.U., Blinova S.A., Development of intrapericardial part of the cranial vena cava of rats in postnatal ontogenesis //Morphology.-2014, V.8, -1. P.26-29.Ocheretina R.Y., Mkrtchan O.Z., Strogov M.B., Morphometric parameters of vessels of the liver lobules in mice during the recovery period after shin injury.

Reasons For Strategic Decision At Thai Airways

Reasons For Strategic Decision At Tai AirwaysAn inspired and cargonfully considered dividing line dodging rear be riding habitd to guide a troupe to achieve greater profitability and succeeder, as it is known that dodge stomach be viewed as plan, ploy, pattern, position and perspective (Kourdi 2009, p3). To those companies that rely on mild price to attract customers, such as budget skyways, short letter strategy plays a signifi intellectworkt role in their trade. However, business strategy should be found on the understandings about competition and threats in the exertion, micro and big environment factors that affect the success of their business, and strengths and warring advantages of the company. Only dismiss business strategy that is based on these understandings be used to achieve success of business motility 1Reasons for Launching a small-scale- price air lane with Thai Airwaystiger Airways is going to launch a afford commensurate airway with Thai Airway s, which will target domestic and international destinations within volt hours flying cartridge clips distance on the basis of Bangkok (Creedy 2001). in that respect ar numerous reasons that tiger Airway launched this airway jointly with Thai Airways, and the fol first gearing five reasons be the most grave unitysTo compete effectively. It evict be seen from the case that, by joint venture, it is easier for tiger Airways to grow its business in Thailand, and will compete effectively in this region with Jetstar and AirAsia (Creedy 2001). supererogatory engagement advantages. By joint venture, it will build better earnings relationship with Thai Airways and whitethorn exhaust advantages to deal with future bedc everywhere risk and competition, as Thai Airways becomes a partner rather than a competitor (Creedy 2001).Additional comprise advantage. By possessing 49% of the joint venture, and different 51% owned by Thai Airways, tiger Airlways has chance to use the advan tage of Thai Airways to principal(prenominal)tain and even strength its junior-grade hail advantage (Creedy 2001).To sheer risk. By additional ne iirk and cost advantages brought from this deal, tiger Airways is capable to face further spread risk.Pan-regional strategy. This joint venture is an important step fore in tigers pan-regional strategy. It is noted by CEO of tiger Airways, Tony Davis, that Bangkok is one key South easterly Asian adit within striking distance of both India and China (Creedy 2001). By additional network advantage from joint venture with Thai Airways, it becomes easier for tiger Airways to weapon this strategy.Reasons for Strategic DecisionTiger Airways decisiveness of launching a fresh(a)-sprung(prenominal)fangled respiratory tract jointly with Thai Airways privy be considered as a strategic decision. Reasons be give tongue to as fol secondarysThis decision abnormal the long direction of Tiger Airways. As mentioned above, this decision was a n important step forward for its pan-regional strategy (Creedy 2001).This decision helped achieve advantage for Tiger Airways. Additional network advantage with Thai Airways and cost advantages were achieved by this joint venture decision.This decision expanded the activities scope of Tiger Airways to inexpensive flight to Bangkok/ Thailand, and efficiency expand to India and China as well This decision had major mental imagery implication. It is mentioned in the case that by 2015, 68 flights would be allocated to this cheap air hose (Creedy 2001).This decision acquired new opportunity for Tiger Airways. By this decision, Tiger Airways became much competitive with Jetstar and AirAsia, which created new opportunity for the process of Tiger Airways (Creedy 2001).This decision affected operational decisions of Tiger Airways. Investment in this new airline require to be weighn into consideration by Tiger Airways.Obviously, this decision tummy be viewed as a plan, a ploy, a p attern, a position, a perspective. in that respectfore, it is a strategic decision.Macro Environment AnalysisPESTEL exemplar is a good technique that can be utilized to analyze large environment factors that affect the industries, as well as low-cost airline persistence. It contains six factors which ar Political, Economical, Social, Technological, Legal and environmental factors (Robinson 2009, p75).Political Government mental unsoundness is a major factor to the low-cost airline persistence. For example, the affairs of bloom of youth Minister of Thailand, Thaksin Shinawatra and his Red-Shirt, led to a fatal drop in touristry industry, which may decrease the customer amount of low-cost airline industry (BBC 2010).Economical Economy recession and financial crisis affected the profitability of low-cost airline industry players. A survey carried by Airline growth line indicated that although revenue didnt show decline, profitability was affected by the financial crisis. ma ny a(prenominal) players encountered a loss in 2008 comp bed to 2007 (Dunn 2009).Social The attitude of income distribution and match work and leisure are factors that cant be neglected. People who are willing to distribute their money on travelling and their free time of leisure will extend the customer amount of the industry.Technological engineering that makes standing seats for airlines available influence this low-cost airline industry seriously. The availability of standing seats for airlines will cut down the cost of industry will make it more attractive (BBC UK, 2010).Legal and Environmental Employment laws, competition law, threat of natural causes, carbon dioxide emission are separate factors of the low-cost airline industry.Question 2Corporate system, stage business Level Strategy and Operational StrategyCorporate Level Strategy harmonise to the definition from Collis and Montgomery (2005, p8), corporate train strategy can be defined as the way that a company uses t o create value through configuration and coordination of its multimarket activities. There are three main emphases of this definition, value creation, configuration and multimarket activities. It is indicated in Appendix 1 that the corporate strategy of Tiger Airways is that To create a portfolio of profitable routes throughout Asia and Australasia by establishing airlines in market where low-fare, low cost business model has exceptional probable for sustainable profitability with ancillary improvements such as baggage upsize, seat selector and sports equipment check-in. line of reasoning Level StrategyOne model developed by Bowman called The Strategy Clock can be used to get good understanding about business take aim strategy, which relates competitive advantage to cost advantage and differentiation advantage. These successful strategies can be illustrated as by-line levels Low price/ low added value, Low price, Hybrid, differentiation without price premium and Focused differen tiation (Angwin et al 2007, p121) either these different strategy are classified based on two factors, price and value. It can be seen from Appendix 1 that the price of Tiger Airways is low because the company implement cost leadership strategy. Besides, compare to separate airlines, the value added by Tiger Airways is limited. Luggage is limited to a sure size seat selection will be charged. Only is purchased nutrient or drink is allowed compare to free food and drink in SIA. Thus, the activities are low value-added. Therefore, based on these two factors, the business level strategy is Low price/Low added value.Operational Strategy accord to the definition of Lowson (2002, p57) that operational strategy can be viewed abundantly as a value givey strategy. It is all about decisions which helps create and deliver product/service, value to customers through companies nub competencies. Therefore, the main operational strategy of Tiger Airways is to maintain and lift the core com petencies of low fare/ low cost. Many decisions have been made based on this strategy sum venture with Thai Airways to launch new airline.Install advanced three-D weather radar to increase efficiency (Tiger Airways.com 2010)Minimize service that charges customers on customers behalf.Question 3Porters Five Forces AnalysisPorters five forces model is one of the most well-known models in business literature that produce the competitive situation in any industry (Beamish Williams 2008 pp76-77). The five forces and their relations are indentified as followsThreat of new entrantsThreat of substitutes talk terms cause of buyers negotiate power of suppliersIntensity of rivalrySource Caneval Ventures. Models on the dynamics of inception. http//www.caneval.com/ passel/innovation/innovation2.html Last accessed Dec. seventh 2010Threat of new entrantsThe threat of new entrants of the low-cost airline industry is very fierce (4 out of 5). Although the investment of panorama up new airline com panies is huge to those organizations which are not in the airline industry, it is feasible to other organizations which are already in airline industry to establish new companies which serve the low-cost airline industry. The initiation of Tiger Airways can be an example to support this point. Tiger Airways is partly by SIA, which is the leading airline service provider all over the world.Threat of substitutes massive distance coaches, trains, passenger ships, network and other airline service providers (such as SIA) are the main substitutes of the low-cost airline industry. It can be seen from Appendix 2 that, although the low-cost airline industry is a booming industry with high growth rate, Network airline service providers are still the main provider in the airline industry. And Long distance coaches and trains play much more significant role in transportation in countries such as China because of the poor emergence of air transport. Therefore, this threat is very high (3 ou t of 5).Bargaining power of buyersIn low-cost airline industry, though customers are easy to kick downstairs substitutes but these substitutes may cause higher price or take more time to reach their destinations. Therefore, the bargaining power of buyers is not so unassailable (2 out of 5). For example, it is clearly seen from Appendix 3 that SIA return book for travelling between Singapore and Hong Kong is around 100SGD expensive than that of Tiger Airways.Bargaining power of suppliersObviously, the main supply of low-cost airline industry should be the aircrafts, and Boeing and Air Bus are the two suppliers of aircrafts to low-cost airline industry. It center that these two companies are in the position of monopoly. Therefore, their bargaining power is terrific strong (5 out of 5).Intensity of rivalryThe intensity of rivalry of low-cost airline industry is not so fierce (2 out of 5). Although the core competency of low-cost airline players is low fare/low cost, they have regi onal characteristic, which means only few airline players are recognize by customers in a certain areas. For instance, in South East Asia, Tiger Airways and AirAsia are the two recognized players by customers.In closure of the analysis of Porters five forces model, the outcome can be summarized as the following picture. affordable airline industry is an attractive industry, as buyers dont have strong bargaining power, which means this market is a seller market low threats of substitutes means low-cost airline is a good choice among the products or services. Besides, although bargaining power of suppliers is extraordinary high, every player in the industry will face this problem, and because of a booming industry with high growth rate, low-cost airline industry is an attractive industry.Question 4 survey Chain AnalysisPorters value chain model is a normal value chain model, which state nine kinds of business activities (Wang 2007, p81). And these business activities are classifie d into assistant and basic activities, which can stated as at a lower placeWang Weijun (2007). Integration and innovation orient to e-society. New York Springer Science+ descent Media, LLC. p81.However, this model aims at manufacture companies. Tiger Airways is in the industry of low-cost airlines, which is a service industry, therefore, the model needs to be modified based on the assumptions as followsAll the purchases are for infrastructure increment purpose. expediency is produced once purchase happens.Therefore, it can be seen from the case and other knowledge from website and Tiger Airways 2010 annual declares that the value added activities are presented as followsIn the case, it is state that by 2015, 8 flights would be allocated to the new launched low-cost airline this is the value-added body process which develops the infrastructure of Tiger Airways (Creedy 2001).In the annual report, it is stated that all new directors to the Board are briefed by Management on the G roups business activities, strategic directions, and will be sent for external prep and development programmes. This is the value-added activities on manpower resource perplexity (Annual report 2010). By this, Tiger Airways is able to make out better corporate, business level and operational strategies for the long development of the company and sustain the cost advantage as well.According to the media release of Tiger Airways, in 2010, by partnering with Honeywell, the company baseed advanced three-D weather radar enhance safety and passenger comfort. This can be viewed as a value-added activity based on technology development (Tiger Airways.com 2010).The annual reported stated that by renewing contracts with airports, ground services, providers and other suppliers, and purchased two aircrafts from Airbus (own rather than lease), enabled Tiger Airways to further reduce direct cost and in tune increase value to customers (Annual report 2010).According to the website, extra serv ice is provided such as luggage upsize, seat selection and as well as related service, for example, hotels, insurance and car hire to enhance the types of service that customer can enjoy through Tiger Airways.There are many other business activities done by Tiger Airways, which enrich the value of service provided by Tiger Airways and gain wide recognition among customers, this is the exact reason helps Tiger Airways be one of the leaders in South East Asia to provide low-cost airline service.Question 5Common Cost-cutting StrategiesAccording to many literatures, there are many different kinds of cost-cutting strategies, for instance, rationalization, standardization, central processing of transactions, technology application and cost trouble strategy (OBrien Datta 1989, p165). Therefore, related to low cost carriers, the common cost-cutting strategies can be presented as followsRationalization. To low cost carriers, non-value-added activities are removed and only do those value-ad ded activities remain. For example, there is one rule in Tiger Airways that only is purchased food or drink is allowed.Standardization. Another strategy is to standardize the service of low cost carriers. It can be seen for Appendix 4 that the service of Tiger Airways is standardized, as extra services will be charged by a certain price.Central processing of transactions. Crucial processes are identify by low cost carriers that need to be focus on to provide the basic service to their customers.Technology application. New technology can be applied to reduce operational cost and even reduce the proportion of risk. As mentioned above, the 3-D weather radar is applied by Tiger Airways to increase the accuracy of weather prediction to reduce surplus loss by reason of bad weather (Tiger Airways.com 2010).Cost management strategy. This strategy is used by low cost carriers to understanding the factors that affected the cost such as fuel, labour, distribution, inventory management, purcha sing, and foreign exchange (IATA facts of life Portfolio). Take Tiger Airways as an example, the two main business regions are South East Asia and Australia. Therefore, the foreign exchange rate between AUS clam and SGD is a factor that cannot be neglected Another evidence stated in Tiger Airways 2010 annual report that by renewing contracts with airports, ground services, providers and other suppliers, and purchased two aircrafts from Airbus (own rather than lease), enabled Tiger Airways to further reduce direct cost.Three Future StrategiesThe strategies will be given according to Ansoffs product/market matrix.Source Berger Roland., Kotler Philip., Bickhoff (2010). The vinyl ether of Strategic Management. London Springer Heigelberg. p36. foodstuff Penetration. To Tiger Airways, it should use activities such as advertising, sales promotion to increase seat occupancy rate, which in turn will reduce the operating(a) cost, this is the way to build strong core competencies.Market De velopment. It is evident in the case that market development is a suitable strategy for Tiger Airways to reduce operating cost and company development (Creedy 2001). By adding new airlines through joint ventures with other airline companies, it will give Tiger Airways have chance to benefit from advantages of other airline companies.Diversification. There are two main types of diversifications, related and unrelated diversification. Thus, To Tiger Airways, the company may use related diversification strategy to expand its business, such as to international express business. Through this strategy, the company can reduce the operating cost.ReferencesAngwin Duncan., Cummings Stephen., Smith Chris (2007). The strategy pathfinder core concepts and micro-cases. Oxford Blackwell Publishing. pp121-122.Annual report (2010). Chairmans statement. http//www.tigerairways.com/news/Annual_Report_2010.pdf Last accessed Dec. 7th 2010BBC (2010). Thailand red-shirts set out new conditions. http//news. bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8671991.stm Last accessed Dec. 7th 2010BBC UK (2010). Are standing seats a standing laughter? http//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8779388.stm Last accessed Dec. 7th 2010Beamish Karen., Williams John (2008). Analysis and Evaluation. Oxford Elsevier Ltd. pp76-77Berger Roland., Kotler Philip., Bickhoff (2010). The Quintessence of Strategic Management. London Springer Heigelberg. p36Caneval Ventures. Models on the dynamics of innovation. http//www.caneval.com/vision/innovation/innovation2.html Last accessed Dec. 7th 2010Collis J. David., Montgomery A. Cynthia (2005). Corporate strategy a resource-based approach.New York McGraw-Hill. P8.Creedy, S. (2001), Tiger Airways to start Thai low-cost airline, The Australian, http//www.theaustralian.com.au/business/tiger-tostart-thai-low-cost-airline/story-e6frg8zx-1225900253006 Last accessed Dec. 7th 2010Dunn Graham (2009). Low-cost carriers Ready for battle. http//www.flightglobal.com/articles/2009/04/21/325429/low-cost-carriers-ready-for- battle.html Last accessed Dec. 7th 2010IATA Training Portfolio. Cost Reduction Strategies. http//www.iata.org/training/courses/Pages/talf02.aspx Last accessed Dec. 7th 2010Kourdi Jeremy (2009). air Strategy A Guide to Taking Your Business Forward. 2nd ed. London Profile Books Ltd. p3.Lowson H. Robert (2002). Strategic operations management the new competitive advantage. 1st ed. Oxon Routledge. p57OBrien Richard., Datta Tapan (1989). International economics and financial markets. Oxford Oxford University Press. p165.Robinson Peter (2009). trading operations Management in the Travel Industry. Oxford CAB International. p75.Tiger Airways.com (2010). Tiger Airways to install advanced 3-D weather radar first low-cost airline in Asia to use latest technology on A320s. http//www.tigerairways.com/news/20100616.pdf Last accessed Dec. 7th 2010Wang Weijun (2007). Integration and innovation orient to e-society. New York Springer Science+ Business Media, LLC. p57.Appendix 1http//www.tigerairway s.com/sg/en/about_us.phpAppendix 2Figure 1 Airline Market Share by Type of Carrier tubercle All others is primarily regional jet carriers but may let in a small percentage of scheduled charter carriers.Source M.R. Dayton, Trends and contain in Aviation Markets, presentation at the ATCA/FAA/Nav Canada Technical Symposium, Office of quizzer General, U.S. Department of Transportation, 2004.Appendix 3Tiger Airways pricehttp//booking.tigerairways.com/skylights/cgi-bin/skylights.cgiSIA pricehttp//www.singaporeair.com/saa/zh_CN/ set/FlightCalendar.jsp