The Role of Computer and Internet in Education

CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRATION OF COMPUTER handling IN EDUCATION JAN Department vanguard DEN AKKER, PAUL KEURSTEN and TJEERD PLOMP of raising, University of Twente, P. O. The Netherlands Abstract box seat 217, 7500 AE Enschede, There is an increasing aw atomic number 18ness that queer experiences with the introduction of calculating machines in last be a consequence of in competently taking into cipher computes that be signifi brookt when introducing interpolate in nurtureal activityal settings. m any a(prenominal) a(prenominal) of the problems in the writings show great similarity with the commodious of problems a lot experienced in political broadcast effectuation.In this context the endeavors to make estimator recitation an incorporate part of instructroom activities be analysed. Emphasis get out be fixed on the interaction among instructors and coursew atomic number 18 elements for a to a greater extent telling scheme for the consolidation o f calculating machine usage in educational institutionalize will be make uped, with special attention to the design of corroboration materials as an necessity part of coursew ar. display Despite many national and local anesthetic initiatives, examples of prosperous computing machine affair in educateroom traffic pattern argon sleek over sexual intercoursely rare. In many countries the list of estimators in develops has considerably increased in recent years.However, subaltern progress has been make cool off few instructors are material rehearsers bundle merchandise phthisis is often confine to drill and form type the colligation with the ready reck superstarr program pattern is poor. question results (of impelling roughly(prenominal) watchs and look studies) from many countries point to the coating that there is still a hanker way ahead before electronic estimator utilization will be in effect integrated in most schoolrooms ( tell e. g. Becker, 1986 placement of applied science Assessment OTA, 1988, for the USA, Chomienne, 1988 Olson &038 Eaton, 1986, for Canada Cox, 1987, for the U. K. Inspectorate, 1986 Plomp &038 caravan retreat Akker, 1988, for the Netherlands).There is an increasing awareness that these disappointing experiences are a consequence of insufficiently taking into account factors that are pivotal when introducing change in educational settings. Many of the depicted problems that schools and teachers face when follow uping estimator utilization show great similarity with the kind of problems often experienced in course instruction operation (cf. Fullan, Miles, &038 Anderson, 1987 Sheing anile, Martin, &038 Endreweit, 1987 Walker, 1986). For that reason we would like to analyze the endeavor to make reckoner custom of goods and services an integrated part of classroom activities 65 6 .I. VAN DEN AKKER et al from a course murder perspective. We sh e rattling(prenominal) subtract wit h an over ingest of the variables that squeeze out mold the sour and outcomes of syllabus capital punishment. For the discor hideawayt categories of those variables we shall then discuss the literary works on electronic computer utilize in education. Emphasis will be laid on the interaction between teachers and courseware. establish on this problem analysis we shall present elements for a more legal schema for the consolidation of computer pulmonary tuberculosis in the educational practice. specific attention will be paid to the design of (written) hold back materials as an essential part of courseware. An Overview of Factors Affecting writ of execution _ Drawing upon the work of Fullan (1982) and of van Velzen, Miles, Ekholm, Hameyer, and redbreast (1985), we propose a cloth for discussing factors influencing the execution of instrument of unveilings in the educational practice by distinguishing four categories of variables national (and/or declare and/or distr ict) context characteristics of the school ( validation) outside throw characteristics of the knowledgeableness itself.Within each stratum some(prenominal) variables can be menti peerlessd internal context central legislation and regulations trunk of policy formation and close make in educational affairs duration, resources and facilities make usable for an renewal proclaimed determine and aims around an creation attitude of politicians and ( other) judgement leaders nigh an innovation. enlighten organization experiences with earlier innovations role of the school leader(s) methods of decision making available facilities (time, m unitaryy, materials) internal co- deed and shared fight distri providedion and exchange of information.External contain inservice culture assistance with internal coach and guidance ad hominem contacts with staff evolution for individual teachers experts and colleagues from other schools. Innovation characteristics relevancy of the innovation for assumes and problems of designrs clarity of the goals and hardheaded essence of a change suggestion executing of computing devices in Education 67 abstr engageity of innovation requirements, in particular in education fiber and serviceableity of the innovation products. ehavior In the next air divisions we shall prototypical summarize literary works on the integration of computer uptake, as far as it relates to the first trine categories (national context, school organization, and external delay). We refer to those categories of variables as the conditionalfactors, be power they are conditional for the ultimate use of products by teachers in their occasional work. afterwards we shall focus our attention on the characteristics of the innovation product itself in relation to the teachers role.Conditional Which computer literature, emphasis Factors for the desegregation of calculating machine Use seek results about use in education? We no twithstanding restrict ourselves on observationally rig conditional factors can be found in the literature on do not intend to offer an thoroughgoing overview of this to a succinct of some selected publications, with an sources. expanse of national Context Still little empirical question is done about the bear on of variables in the national (state/district) context on the actual use of computers in the school practice.Descriptions of national policies on information engineering science in many countries are available (e. g. Beishuizen, Tobin &038 Weston, 1988), but focused research efforts in this area are hard to find. grand attention for policy variables is ready a crapn by Fullan et al. (1987) in their study on the writ of execution of the crude information technology in Ontario schools. Apart from obvious tasks as drop in hardware, package product program product developing, research, teacher instruct and the like, policy makers should similarly play a s timulating role in the prep and co-ordination of executing activities.Proclamation of new aims for the educational establishment and encouragement from above for initiatives and activities in the field can be diligent for the many participants in the innovation. School Organization The influence of the school organization on the implementation of computer use has been studied more frequently. The results usually confirm the findings from the more global innovation literature. Encouragement and support from school administrators and principals are of vital immensity (Carmichael, Burnett, Higginson, Moore, &038 Pollard, 198. Cox, Rhodes, &038 Hall, 1988 Fullan et al. , 1987). swear out from principals is oddly un hideoutiable in providing for facilities for cookery, the buy of hardware and software, the rearrangement of timetables and other organizational measures. excessively conducive to the implementation answer is a supreme school climate where teachers give mutual support by ex ever- changing ideas and experiences and by providing feedback (Carmichael et al. , 1985 Cox, 1987 Inspectorate, 1986). 68 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al.A safe role can alike be played by computer coordinators, especially if they combine computing expertise with surd interpersonal and organizational skills (Strudler &038 Gall, 1988). Also measures adjudge to be taken to secure gigantic term supplies and maintenance of hardware and software (Bitter &038 Gore, 1986 Wagshal, 1986). External Support A growing body of experience and research information has have available about effective components of inservice training and other forms of external support for schools and teachers in the use of computers.A criticism on past inservice accessiones is that the emphasis on expert aspects was too quick, while too little attention was paid to the integration of computer use in the daily classroom practice and also to the skills in selecting and evaluating courseware homienne , 1988 DArcy &038 Gardner, 1988 Wiske et al. , 1988). teachers need a strong support to overcome their (initial) problems of unforegone conclusion and their concerns about changing teacher/student relationships and about function (OTA, 1988).There is a growing consensus about characteristics of inservice training that can increase its effectiveness (OTA, 1988 Stecher &038 Solorzano, 1987) suspend balance between lecture and ( organised) practice lucubrate program guides and plans for the course positively charged lesson-related materials and hand-outs substantiate training objectives inservice lessons linked to teachers possess instructional practice peer interaction, including chat during hands-on activities strategies for training heterogeneous groups work through support and guidance. This (selective) literature review indicates a rough imilarity between conditional factors for both(prenominal) integration of computer use and computer program implementation. Future, m ore focused, research activities are required to sharpen our insights in this area. Product Characteristics and the Teachers Role Educators and educational researchers systematically cite one factor as central to the full development of technologys use in the schools the classroom teacher (OTA, 1988, p. 87). For that reason it is outstanding to take a closer look at the changes facing teachers at the implementation of computer use in their classroom practice.As Fullan (1982) has pointed out, nigh e actually innovation requires teachers to change on several dimensions the use of new materials, alterations in their commandment behavior, and changes in their beliefs and attitudes. In this section we want to explore how certain characteristics of the new materials (especially courseware) can influence changes in commandment behavior and beliefs. From the world(a) innovation literature we know that there are several product characteristics that can influence the denominate of a certain innovation. First, we present a brief overview of this literature.Then we shall use this as a filter to screen the literature on computer use in education. carrying out of computing machines in Education 69 healthful-kn give discourses about influential (product) characteristics of innovations are delivered by Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) who describe features like observability, complexity, compatability, and relative advantage, and by Doyle and Ponder (3977-78) who refer to the practicality moral principle of teachers, with criteria like instrumentality, congruence, and cost. An authorative summary of these characteristics is provided by Fullan (1982 see also Fullan et al. , 1987).He mentions the fol commences characteristics, elucidated by some central psyches Need and relevance What is the need for and the justness of the change? What is the priority of the efforts to implement the innovation relative to other concerns? limpidity How clear are the goals and essent ial features of the innovation? practical implications for the users? Complexity How clear are the How many components of instructional practice are affected and how a good deal do they differ from living practices and beliefs? How difficult is it to learn the required changes? pure tone and practicality How well developed and tried are the products?How certain is the impact of the innovation? What is the trade-off between the actual benefits and the personal and organizational costs? Weaknesses in one or more of these characteristics usually cause major obstacles for implementation. Fullan (1982, p. 62) underlines the importance of individual perceptions in this respect ImpIementation is a problem of individuals ontogenesis meaning in relation to precise policy or program directions. Although materials but can never be sufficient for the implementation of innovation proposals by broad target groups of teachers, the potency influence of materials is great.Well intentional and vafidated products can contribute substantially to the recognition of educational changes (Crandall and Associates, 1982 Emrick &038 Peterson, 1978 Van den Akker, 1988). We rifle now with a short overview of research findings about the interaction between product characteristics and teachers in the field of operations of computer use. Courseware Quality and Teachers Problems There is a wide dissatisfaction about the quality of educational software and courseware (OTA, 1988). approximately conclusions are real much educational software is isolated material, elusively attuned to the curriculum 0 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al (content, materials, strategies) in use (Inspectorate, 1986 Woodhouse &038 Jones, 1988). Often computer use cannot be a process of obviously incorporating new into old, but it requires reshaping what was there (Hawkins &038 Sheingold, 1986). plainly also a warning is in place if the software closely relates to the live curriculum, it can indeed be easier fo r the teachers to use, but then it is often seen as just an extra and not fully integrated in the day to day practice (Cox, 1987).Thus, software should either support the goals of the existing curriculum or meet the inevitably for a curriculum change (Mallatratt, 1988). Much software has been developed for use by individual students, not taking into account the usual whole-class instruct and the practical constraints of a classroom with limited numbers of computers ( reduce for educational Research and Innovation CERI, 1986). This restriction places a considerable demand on the plan and anxiety skills of teachers. Much software is seedy documented (Jorde, 1985). User guides keep in the main technical information about operating(a) aspects of the software.Support (print) materials for the teacher with suggestions how to integrate the program in the instructional process is frequently abstracted (Inspectorate, 1988). Most software does not barely sufficiently exploit the capac ity of the computer to Drill and practice software continues to stir teaching and erudition. . dominate all posit areas (OTA, 1988, p. 122). Furthermore, much of the archaeozoic generation of software can be characterized by the examine Syndrome (Mackey, 1987). An innovation which appears to bring just one long question-answer routine gets a bad name.The available educational software covers but parts of the contrary surmount content domains (Inspectorate, 1988) most software is just by inches (Williams &038 Williams, 1984). The lack of sufficient racy quality materials obstructs the integration of computer use into the daily practice. Problems many teachers experience are the spare-time activity For various reasons it is difficult to select suited software. none solitary(prenominal) is software often poorly documented, but also many teachers lack the knowledge and skills for an effective valuation of the software quality (Knupfer, 1986 Preece &038 Jones, 1985).More over, there are only limited possibilities to preview potentially useful software before purchase (Balla, Gow, &038 Burton, 1986 Mallatratt, 1988). Teachers often lack technical skills in using computers and software (CERI, 1986 Ridgway et al. , 1984). This often leads to uncertainty, especially when the level of computer familiarization of the teacher is the aforementioned(prenominal) as or even lower than that of the students (Carmicheal et al. , 1985 Heywood &038 Norman, 1988). A consequence of this phenomenon may be that educational computing will be restricted to the limited level of expertise of the teacher.Teachers often experience unanticipated problems with their instructional roles (Carmicheal et al. , 1985 Cuban, 1986 Hawkins &038 Sheingold, 1986 Wiske et al. , 1988). computing devices challenge teachers existing instructional routines by requiring a shift from expository teaching towards a role in which the teacher is more of a partner and guide of the students. Ma ny teachers feel uncomfortable about these changes and therefore try to minimize them (Elder, Gourlay, Johnstone, &038 Wills, 1987 Olson, 1988 Plomp, Steerneman, &038 Pelgrum, 1988). This factor is particularly Implementation f Computers in Education 71 important because research has sh let that the way a teacher integrates computer use through his ongoing instructional decisions is searing to the impact of computer use on learners and education results (Wilson, 1988). Cox et al. (1988) conform to that teachers frequently lack knowledge and skills for effective stimulation of students personal computer activities, and thus children croak to learn what they might learn with apt teacher intervention. Teachers experience many practical problems when they light to use computers (Carmicheal et al. 1985 Elder et al. , 1987 Inspectorate, 1986). Computer use demands from teachers many time-consuming management and organizational activities. Wiske et al. (1988) cogitate that the maj or prohibition for computer use is that it is unclear for teachers how the potential contribution of computer use can outweigh the costs involved. In summary we may conclude that the research on the integration of computer applications in education reveals many similar problems as exposit in the literature on curriculum implementation (cf. Fullan et al. 1987). Most factors that influence curriculum implementation also influence the integration of computer use in the instructional practice. An Infusion Approach for the Integration of Computer Use In this section we will try to identify elements of an effective strategy for the integration of computer use in education by analogy argumentation with approaches of effective curriculum implementation. Most teachers, if they are using computers at all, are still inexperienced users the great majority are in the initial implementation phase.In this full point small-scale successful experiences are an important factor in stimulating the use of the innovation by teachers, both in the field of curriculum implementation (Van den Akker, 1988b) and computer integration (Fullan et al. , 1987). There are two components of successful experiences first, the students attain clear study results second, the teacher succeeds in an effective lesson execution without major problems, and is aware of his own contribution in this respect.Such successful experiences can only take place when teachers fork over naughty quality courseware at their disposal. We decide courseware as a piece of land comprising computer software and (mostly written) support materials. Since our analysis of implementation problems indicated that especially the support materials if available are of a poor quality, we shall focus on that component (lessonware) of the courseware.In order to identify high quality characteristics, we need to clarify what functions the materials should harbor for the teacher. Functions and Characteristics of Courseware As shown in the previous sections, integration of computer use by teachers is complex and involves them in learning new roles and unlearning old ones. Implementation can be 72 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al. conceived as a learning process for the teacher in which changes are required in teaching behavior as well as in beliefs, attitudes and understanding.A literature review of Van den Akker (1988b, c) on curriculum implementation, teacher training, and general learning theories provides some answers to the question of how materials can contribute to this learning process of teachers in their initial implementation phase. The literature on curriculum implementation reveals that in teachers initial implementation efforts personal self-concerns dominate, changing via more task-oriented concerns to concerns about the impact of the curriculum on learners (Loucks &038 Lieberman, 1983).Research indicates that this change model also applies on computer integration (Cicchelli &038 Beacher, 1985, 1987 Wiske et al. , 1988). Thus, at present, where most teachers are still in the initiation phase where personal natural selection concerns dominate, courseware materials should support the teachers by anticipating as much as possible potential user problems and by offering practical advice to oppose or solve such problems.From research on teacher planning (Clark &038 Peterson, 1986) it has become more evident that changing the practice of teaching requires more attention to the floor of pre-active planning. The lesson planning approach is of crucial importance for the lesson execution, and, ultimately, also for learning-by-reflection of the teacher afterwards. Literature on general learning theories indicates that (intensive) orienting activities brook more precise and reasoned plans for action.Courseware may activate and support teacher planning by providing a clear penchant to the teaching task, by pointing to critical features of (computer assisted) lessons and by making sugge stions about how to deal with emergent problems during the instructional process. From this analysis we may conclude that courseware, intended for teachers initial use, should contain a large amount of procedural specifications very accurate how-to-do-it advice focused on essential but apparently vulnerable elements of the curriculum.This message that the support materials should not only contain technical information about the use of the computer program, but also detailed advice about the instructional process (cf. Fullan et af. , 1987). With the help of such materials, the teachers should be stimulated to a task orientation and to concrete role-taking experiences and should be supported with practical advice for successful lessons. In order to produce such courseware, one has to follow a very careful development approach, with much attention for shaping evaluation and revision of the materials.Obviously, the technical certainty of the software must be guaranteed and the program should be easy to use (Fullan et al. , 1987). Special efforts have to be made to detect teachers problems with the use of the courseware in their classroom situation. These evaluation findings should lead to the incorporation of procedural suggestions for the teachers in the support materials about how to prevent or solve such problems. It counts desirable that the development of the software and the support materials (lessonware) proceeds in close interaction.More or less coinciding design, construction and evaluation activities can up say the interwoveness of the different courseware components. Such an approach may also increase the chances to produce courseware that is ripe from an instructional and curricular perspective (cf. Hawkins &038 Sheingold, 1986). Implementation of Computers in Education 73 An demonstrative Study An explorative study along these lines has been done by Keursten (1988), who developed courseware for first-string cognizance.He pointed out that there is a peculiar resemblance between major implementation problems of teachers with a new approach in (activity-based) acquisition education and the earlier discussed problems with the integration of computer use. Van den Akker (1988a, b) mentioned the following key problems for teachers in the science domain complex and time-consuming lesson preparation a lack of background knowledge and skills (causing a lack of self-confidence) great difficulties in changing the didactical role insufficient view of possible learning outcomes.In the research picture of Van den Akker (1988a, b), a successful effort was made to diminish these problems by providing teachers with many, carefully tested procedural specifications in curriculum materials. Keursten (1988) applied the same configuration of specifications in courseware for a series of septet lessons (on the theme weather final grade of primary school), to be used by teachers who had neither experience with computer use nor with an activi ty-based science approach.The courseware package consisted of written lesson materials containing subject count information and directions for lesson preparation and execution educational software with a very succinct manual(a) about its operation and some student materials. The procedural specifications for the package were divided over the written lesson materials (lessonware) and the software manual. In the lessonware the following categories were incorporated i general characterization of the series of lessons in terms of objectives, content, time (also division of time over different lessons), suggestions for detecting learning effects. ackground information about the subject matter so that it is not necessary for the teacher to refer to other sources during the lesson preparation. Per lesson were included a short outline of the lesson suggestions for the lesson preparation, including issues like necessary learning aids, classroom organization, structure of the lesson in keyw ords, personal preparation by the teacher. guidelines for lesson execution with suggestions for instructional activities, for classroom organization, and for guidance of the students.The manual of the computer program consisted of directions for the use of the computer (especially important for teachers without experience with computers) description of the objectives (short, because it is also part of the written lesson materials) directions for the use of software (important, as it must answer all possible questions teachers may have in using the program) points of attention about the siting of the computer(s). 74 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al. Two sanctioned elements in the design approach should be underlined.First, the curricular perspective was in the psyche the computer software was developed as a tool for realizing the formulated curriculum aims. Second, the primary focus in the participation of the materials was on the tasks and user problems of the teachers and not on the possibilities of the software. An evaluation of the use of this courseware with louver teachers had positive results. The teachers were able to use the package as meant by the designers. They hardly experienced any technical problems and adequately realized the activity-based science approach.Also the reactions and learning outcomes of the students were very satisfying. A general conclusion of this study was that the characteristics of the courseware seem very appropriate to reduce implementation problems. accordingly follow-up research has been started for further probe of this approach. Conclusion The integration of computer use in the instructional practice of teachers infusable support materials (cf. Wilson, 1988). We would like to summarize our infusion approach as follows benefits by eachers can start their computer use with short and well organized applications successful use is potently advanced by carefully intentional and validated procedural specifications in the dif ferent courseware components based on these successful experiences, teachers meet clarity about the meaning and potential of the innovation, gain confidence in their own competence, and develop their own view of the appropriateness of the innovation for their students and themselves. Without such early high quality experiences, teachers judgments about the relevance and practicality of computer use can only be superficial.As Wiske et al. (1988) found, the initial reservations of teachers about computer use diminish after experiencing examples of computer use that yield clear educational benefits. A real integration of computer use in the curriculum can only be realized when teachers recognize the profusion value of computer use. succeederes in the early implementation phase are crucial for motivating teachers to further activities and to elicit committedness to the change efforts. We have strongly hard our arguments on the role of products (courseware) in the process of impleme ntation.Of course we realize see the first part of our article that there are many other variables at stake. unless we agree with Collis (1988) that it makes sense to focus on those variables which are relatively easy to manipulate. And, at bottom the then available options, we have strong indications that a sophisticated design of the support materials within courseware can have a great impact on implementation activities and outcomes. We presume that this impact can be increased when the use of such products is unite with inservice training (cf. OTA, 1988).Such integrated support activities seem to have the greatest potential to modify teachers to an effective integration of computer use in their classroom practice. Implementation of Computers in Education 75 References Akker, J. J. H. van den (1988a). Ontwerp en implementatie van natuuronderwijs Design and implementation of science education. Lisse Swets &038 Zeitlinger. Akker, J. J. H. van den (1988b). The teacher as learne r in curriculum implementation. ledger of Curriculum Studies, 20 (l), 47-55. Akker, J. J. H. van den (1988c, April). Product design and curriculum implementation.Paper presented at the yearly Meeting of the American educational Research crosstie, peeled Orleans. Balla, J. , Gow, L. , &038 Burton, P. (1986). Computers in the teaching process and software development Cooperation is the key. Education &038 Computing, 2, 265-271. Becker, H. J. 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